The Story of Humanity - Before History

How independent Greek city states shaped ideas about citizenship, government, warfare, philosophy and culture

When we think about ancient Greece, we often imagine white marble temples standing beneath a bright Mediterranean sky, philosophers discussing the meaning of life, soldiers marching into battle, athletes competing before cheering crowds and ships crossing the Aegean Sea. These images have become deeply connected with our understanding of the ancient Greek world. Yet behind these familiar images was a political world that was very different from the modern idea of a country. There was no single united Greek nation controlling the entire region. Instead, the Greek world was divided into hundreds of independent communities, each with its own government, laws, army, traditions and political identity.

The most important political unit of this world was the polis. The word is often translated as city state, although a polis was more than simply a city. It included the urban settlement, the surrounding countryside and the community of people who belonged to it. A polis could contain farmers, craftsmen, merchants, soldiers, religious institutions and political assemblies. People often identified themselves strongly with their own polis, and being Athenian, Spartan, Corinthian or Theban could be an important part of a person's identity.

The geography of the Greek world played a major role in creating this political landscape. The Greek mainland is covered by mountains, valleys and narrow coastal plains. The Aegean Sea contains many islands, while the coastline is filled with natural harbours. Mountains could make travel between communities difficult, while the sea provided routes connecting settlements that were separated by land. These geographical conditions contributed to the development of independent political communities rather than one large centralized kingdom.

The Greek world was also connected to regions beyond the mainland. Greek communities interacted with Anatolia, Egypt, the Levant, North Africa, southern Italy, Sicily and the Black Sea. Traders carried goods across the Mediterranean, while sailors, migrants and settlers moved between different regions. Greek culture therefore developed through constant contact with other civilizations. The ancient Greek world was never isolated from the societies around it.

Among the many Greek city states, Athens and Sparta became particularly influential. Their societies developed in very different directions, and their rivalry eventually became one of the defining political conflicts of ancient Greece.

Athens was located in the region of Attica and possessed an important natural harbour at Piraeus. Its location supported agriculture, trade and maritime activity. During the early period of Athenian history, political power was concentrated heavily among aristocratic families. Wealthy landowners controlled much of the political system, while poorer citizens faced economic difficulties and limited political influence.

Social tensions gradually increased. Debt could place farmers under severe pressure, and disagreements between wealthy families and poorer citizens threatened political stability. Athens responded through a series of reforms that would eventually transform its political system.

One of the important figures in this process was Solon, who became an Athenian archon in the early sixth century BCE. Solon introduced reforms intended to reduce social conflict. He addressed debt problems and changed aspects of the political system, although he did not create the democratic system for which Athens later became famous. His reforms formed part of a longer process in which Athens gradually changed the relationship between political power, wealth and citizenship.

Later, Cleisthenes introduced further reforms around the end of the sixth century BCE. His changes reorganized the political structure of Athens and helped establish institutions that became central to Athenian democracy. Citizens gained a greater role in political decision making, and political participation became more closely connected to the organization of the citizen population.

Athenian democracy was an extraordinary political experiment, but it was also limited. Citizenship was not available to everyone living in Athens. Women, enslaved people and resident foreigners did not possess the same political rights as adult male citizens. The democracy therefore represented direct political participation for a particular section of society rather than equality for the entire population.

The word democracy comes from Greek terms associated with the people and political power. In Athens, citizens could gather in the Assembly and participate directly in decisions concerning war, laws and public policy. Citizens could also serve on juries and participate in other institutions of government. Some public officials were selected by lot, reflecting the belief that political power should not belong entirely to wealthy families.

Public speaking became extremely important in this system. Political decisions were debated before citizens, and the ability to persuade an audience could influence the direction of the city. This political environment encouraged the development of rhetoric and argument. Citizens were expected to participate in the affairs of the community, although the actual experience of political participation differed greatly according to wealth, status, gender and citizenship.

Sparta developed along a very different path. Located in the Peloponnese, Sparta became famous for its military culture and disciplined social organization. Spartan citizens were expected to devote much of their lives to military training and service. The state developed institutions intended to produce a highly disciplined warrior population.

The Spartan system depended heavily on the labor of populations who did not possess full Spartan citizenship. The helots, particularly those living in Messenia and Laconia, worked the land and were subject to Spartan control. Their agricultural labor helped support the Spartan citizen population and allowed Spartan men to concentrate heavily on military responsibilities.

Sparta was not simply a military dictatorship. Its political system contained several institutions, including two hereditary kings, a council of elders and other bodies that distributed authority among citizens. The system combined elements of monarchy, oligarchy and citizen participation. It was very different from Athens, but both societies developed complex political institutions.

The differences between Athens and Sparta became particularly important during the conflicts with the Persian Empire. By the sixth century BCE, the Persian state had expanded into Anatolia and had brought many Greek-speaking communities under its authority. The Ionian Revolt against Persian rule at the end of the sixth century BCE increased tensions between Persia and several Greek communities.

The conflict eventually developed into the Persian Wars. In 490 BCE, Persian forces landed near Marathon in Attica. The Athenians and their allies defeated the Persian army, creating a major victory that became an important part of Athenian historical memory.

A decade later, the Persian king Xerxes launched a much larger invasion of Greece. Persian forces crossed into Europe, supported by a powerful fleet, while several Greek city states attempted to resist the invasion. The Greek world was divided, however, and not every community opposed Persia.

The Battle of Thermopylae became one of the most famous events of the invasion. A Greek force attempted to hold a narrow mountain pass against the much larger Persian army. The Spartan king Leonidas and his soldiers became particularly famous in later traditions, although the Greek force included soldiers from several communities. The Persians eventually broke through the pass and advanced farther into Greece.

Athens was evacuated as Persian forces approached, and the city was occupied and burned. The Greek resistance then depended heavily upon naval power. At the Battle of Salamis, Greek ships fought the Persian fleet in the narrow waters near the island of Salamis. The Greek victory created a major setback for the Persian invasion.

The following year, Greek forces defeated the remaining Persian army at Plataea. Persian forces also suffered another setback at Mycale in Asia Minor. The invasion of Greece had failed, although the Persian Empire remained a major power for generations.

The Persian Wars changed the balance of power among the Greek city states. Athens emerged with greater confidence and increased its influence over other communities through the Delian League. The alliance had originally been created to continue resistance against Persia, but over time Athens gained increasing control over it.

The resources collected from allied communities helped Athens build a powerful navy and finance major public projects. The city entered a period of extraordinary cultural and political development. The Acropolis became one of the most important monumental centres of the Greek world, and the Parthenon was constructed during the fifth century BCE as a temple dedicated to Athena.

Athens became a major centre of philosophy, literature, drama, architecture and political debate. Yet its growing power also created fear among other Greek states. Sparta and its allies increasingly viewed Athenian expansion as a threat.

The tension eventually contributed to the Peloponnesian War, which began in 431 BCE. Athens and its allies fought against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. The conflict continued for decades and involved military campaigns, naval warfare, political struggles and devastating disease.

Athens suffered a major plague early in the war. The disease killed large numbers of people and also claimed the life of Pericles, one of the most important Athenian political figures of the period. The war placed enormous pressure on Athenian society.

Athens possessed a powerful navy and relied heavily on its maritime empire. Sparta had a stronger land army and eventually developed greater naval capabilities with Persian financial support. The conflict gradually exhausted both sides.

In 404 BCE, Athens surrendered to Sparta. Spartan victory temporarily made Sparta the dominant power in Greece, but the result did not create lasting political stability. Other city states challenged Spartan influence, and Thebes eventually emerged as another major military power.

The Battle of Leuctra in 371 BCE demonstrated the changing balance of power. The Thebans defeated the Spartan army, weakening Spartan dominance and briefly establishing Thebes as the leading military power in Greece.

The constant rivalry between Athens, Sparta, Thebes and other city states revealed an important weakness of the polis system. Independent political communities could develop their own institutions and cultures, but they also competed for influence. Alliances frequently changed, and periods of peace were repeatedly interrupted by war.

While Greek armies fought across the mainland, Greek thinkers were examining questions about human society, knowledge and morality.

One of the most famous philosophers of Athens was Socrates. He lived during the fifth century BCE and became known for questioning people about their beliefs concerning justice, virtue, knowledge and morality. Socrates did not leave written works of his own, so much of what we know about him comes from later writers, especially Plato and Xenophon.

Socrates encouraged people to examine their assumptions rather than simply accepting traditional ideas. His approach could be challenging in a society where political reputation and public opinion were important. In 399 BCE, he was tried by an Athenian jury and sentenced to death. The circumstances of his trial remain one of the most discussed episodes in the history of philosophy.

Plato, who had been influenced by Socrates, later developed a major philosophical tradition of his own. He founded the Academy in Athens and wrote dialogues examining questions about justice, government, knowledge, education and the nature of reality.

Plato's student Aristotle became another enormously influential thinker. His interests extended across philosophy, politics, logic, biology, ethics and the natural world. Aristotle attempted to classify different forms of government and examined how political communities functioned. His writings influenced intellectual traditions for centuries.

Greek historical writing also developed during this period. Herodotus wrote a major account of the Persian Wars and included information about the peoples, customs and geography of the wider ancient world. His work combined historical investigation with stories and traditions, reflecting the methods available to ancient writers.

Thucydides took a more focused approach when writing about the Peloponnesian War. He examined political decisions, military strategy and human motivations. He attempted to distinguish reliable evidence from stories that could not be confirmed. His work became an important influence on later historical writing.

Greek drama developed alongside philosophy and history. Tragedies explored questions about power, justice, family, war, revenge, fate and the relationship between human beings and the gods. Writers such as Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides created works that continued to influence literature long after the societies in which they lived had disappeared.

Comedy also became an important form of public expression. Aristophanes used humour to comment on politics, war, social customs and public figures. The theatre therefore became a place where Greek communities could examine their own society.

Religion remained central to Greek life throughout these developments. Greeks worshipped many gods and goddesses, including Zeus, Hera, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Poseidon and Aphrodite. Religious practices varied between communities, but temples, sacrifices, festivals and rituals were important parts of social life.

Greek mythology provided another way of understanding the human experience. Stories about Achilles, Odysseus, Heracles and other legendary figures explored themes such as courage, pride, loyalty, revenge, suffering and the limits of human power. The poems traditionally associated with Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, became central parts of Greek cultural tradition.

Education and social expectations differed between city states. In Athens, boys from citizen families could receive education in music, poetry, physical training and intellectual subjects. In Sparta, education was strongly connected to military discipline and communal training.

Women also experienced these societies differently depending on the city state. Athenian women generally had limited political rights and were expected to focus heavily on household responsibilities. Spartan women had greater economic responsibilities and could possess and manage property in ways that were less common in classical Athens.

The Greek world was also a world in which slavery was widespread. Enslaved people worked in households, farms, workshops and other areas of the economy. Their labor contributed significantly to the wealth and functioning of many communities.

This reality is essential to understanding ancient Greece. The same societies that developed democracy, philosophy, drama and influential artistic traditions also excluded large sections of their population from political life and depended upon systems of forced labor.

Greek civilization also developed through contact with the wider Mediterranean world. Greek settlements were established in southern Italy, Sicily, North Africa and around the Black Sea. These communities created networks of trade and cultural exchange.

Greek merchants traded grain, wine, olive oil, pottery, metals and other products across the Mediterranean. Ships connected communities separated by hundreds or thousands of kilometres. People moved with these trade networks, carrying their languages, religious traditions, technologies and artistic ideas.

Greek culture was therefore not created in isolation. Greek communities borrowed ideas and practices from older civilizations and adapted them to their own societies. The Greek alphabet, for example, developed from the Phoenician writing system, with changes that made it particularly useful for representing the Greek language.

The Greek world was part of a much larger interconnected ancient world.

By the fourth century BCE, however, the political system of independent city states was facing another major transformation. A powerful kingdom to the north was becoming increasingly influential.

Macedon had long existed on the northern edge of the Greek world. Under King Philip II, Macedon became a powerful military state. Philip reorganized the Macedonian army, strengthened the kingdom's economy and used diplomacy alongside military force.

His army developed a powerful infantry formation using long spears known as sarissas. Macedonian cavalry also played an important role in battlefield tactics. Philip used these forces to expand Macedonian influence across Greece.

In 338 BCE, Philip defeated a coalition of Greek city states at the Battle of Chaeronea. The battle marked a major change in Greek political history. The city states continued to exist, but Macedon had become the dominant military power in the region.

Philip planned to invade the Persian Empire, but he was assassinated in 336 BCE.

His son Alexander became king.

Alexander was young, but he inherited the military organization and political position created by his father. Within a few years, he would begin a campaign that would transform the ancient world.

In 334 BCE, Alexander crossed into Asia and began his invasion of the Persian Empire. He defeated Persian forces at the Granicus River and continued through Anatolia. His campaigns then took him through the Levant and into Egypt before he confronted the Persian king Darius III.

The Persian Empire that had once invaded Greece was now facing a Macedonian army led by a young king from northern Greece.

Alexander defeated Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. Babylon, Susa and Persepolis fell into Macedonian hands. Alexander continued his campaigns eastward into Central Asia and eventually reached parts of the Indian subcontinent.

His conquests created a political world far larger than any Greek polis had previously controlled.

Greek language and cultural traditions spread into territories that had previously belonged to Persian and other civilizations. Yet this process was not simply a one way spread of Greek culture. Greek settlers and rulers interacted with Persian, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Central Asian and other traditions.

The result was a new cultural environment.

After Alexander's death, his empire divided among competing successors. Several kingdoms emerged across Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Anatolia and other regions. Greek became an important language of administration and culture in many of these kingdoms, while local languages, religions and traditions remained deeply influential.

This period became known as the Hellenistic age.

The Hellenistic world demonstrated how cultures could interact after political conquest. Greek traditions influenced local societies, while local traditions also influenced the Greek communities that settled across the eastern Mediterranean and Asia.

The story of ancient Greece therefore cannot be reduced to a simple story of temples, philosophers and heroic warriors. It was a story of political experimentation, cultural exchange, social inequality, intellectual curiosity and almost continuous competition between communities.

The polis gave people a strong sense of political identity. Athens demonstrated one form of citizen government, while Sparta developed a very different social and military system. Other city states created their own institutions and traditions.

The Greek world also created an environment in which people could debate fundamental questions about government, justice, knowledge and human nature. These debates did not produce one universally accepted answer, but they created traditions of questioning that would influence later civilizations.

Yet the political independence of the Greek city states could not last forever.

Macedon had already demonstrated that a powerful kingdom could dominate the divided city states. Alexander would take the next step by carrying Macedonian armies across the Persian Empire and into territories that stretched far beyond the traditional Greek world.

The old world of independent city states was giving way to something much larger.

The Persian Empire had connected enormous territories under one imperial system. The Greek city states had developed competing political communities and intellectual traditions. Alexander would bring these worlds together through conquest.

The result would be one of the most important cultural transformations of the ancient world.